Learn HTML5/CSS3 for Mobile apps Development

Table of Contents

Preface ............................................................................................ xiv

Part I: Building Web Pages and Applications with the Open Web Standard

HOUR 1: Improving Mobile Web Application Development with HTML5 1 Understanding How We Got to HTML5 .................................................... 1 Learning What’s Different with HTML5.................................................... 3 Defining Web Applications .................................................................... 4 Using the Open Web Standard................................................................ 4 Using HTML5 with iOS and Android Devices ............................................ 6 Writing Mobile Websites ........................................................................ 7 Summary .......................................................................................... 11 Q&A ................................................................................................ 12 Workshop .......................................................................................... 13

HOUR 2: New HTML5 Tags and Attributes with Mobile Development 15 The New HTML5 Tags.......................................................................... 15 The New HTML5 Attributes .................................................................. 24 Changes to HTML 4 Tags and Attributes ................................................ 25 Changes to HTML Syntax in HTML5...................................................... 27 Mobile Support of HTML5 Tags and Attributes ........................................ 28 Benefits of HTML5 for Mobile Web Development...................................... 29 Summary .......................................................................................... 30 Q&A ................................................................................................ 30 Workshop .......................................................................................... 31

HOUR 3: Styling Mobile Pages with CSS3 33 Quick Introduction to CSS .................................................................... 33 What CSS3 Adds to the Party................................................................ 42 Using CSS3 on Mobile Devices .............................................................. 46

Summary .......................................................................................... 46 Q&A ................................................................................................ 46 Workshop .......................................................................................... 47

HOUR 4: Detecting Mobile Devices and HTML5 Support 49 Choosing What HTML5 Elements to Use ................................................ 50 Android and iOS Support for HTML5 .................................................... 50 Detecting HTML5 Functions.................................................................. 52 Degrading Gracefully .......................................................................... 58 Using CSS3 Media Queries to Detect Mobile Browsers................................ 60 Testing Your Applications .................................................................... 63 Summary .......................................................................................... 64 Q&A ................................................................................................ 64 Workshop .......................................................................................... 65

HOUR 5: JavaScript and HTML5 Web Applications 67 What is JavaScript? ............................................................................ 67 What is jQuery? ................................................................................ 72 Using jQuery Mobile .......................................................................... 79 Summary .......................................................................................... 82 Q&A ................................................................................................ 82 Workshop .......................................................................................... 83

HOUR 6: Building a Mobile Web Application 85 Building a Site that Works on All Devices .............................................. 85 Deciding on What Type of Application You Want .................................... 86 Building the Application in HTML ........................................................ 89 Using CSS to Make the HTML Look Good................................................ 91 Adding Mobile Meta Tags for More Effective HTML5 Pages ........................ 96 Optimizing Your Site for Mobile ............................................................ 99 Summary ........................................................................................ 102 Q&A .............................................................................................. 102 Workshop ........................................................................................ 103

vi Sams Teach Yourself HTML5 Mobile Application Development in 24 Hours

HOUR 7: Upgrading a Site to HTML5 105 Deciding When and How to Upgrade from HTML 4................................ 105 HTML5 Features that Work Right Now.................................................. 111 The State of HTML5 Browser Support.................................................... 112 Adding HTML5 Features as Extras on Your Site ...................................... 113 HTML5 Features that Turn Your Site into a Killer Mobile Application ........ 115 Summary ........................................................................................ 116 Q&A .............................................................................................. 116 Workshop ........................................................................................ 118

HOUR 8: Converting Web Apps to Mobile 119 Choosing a Web Editor ...................................................................... 120 Testing Your Application .................................................................... 121 Evaluating Your Content .................................................................... 123 Changing the Visual Design for Mobile ................................................ 124 Checking for HTML5 and CSS3............................................................ 130 Supporting Multiple Devices .............................................................. 132 Evaluating Finished Apps on Other Devices .......................................... 133 Getting an Application to Work on Older Browsers ................................ 134 Summary ........................................................................................ 138 Q&A .............................................................................................. 139 Workshop ........................................................................................ 139

Part II: Learning the HTML5 Essentials

HOUR 9: Adding Meaning with HTML5 Sectioning and Semantic Elements 141 What Are Sectioning Elements? .......................................................... 141 Using the New Sectioning Elements...................................................... 142 Marking Up HTML Semantically.......................................................... 154 Summary ........................................................................................ 159 Q&A .............................................................................................. 159 Workshop ........................................................................................ 160

Contents vii

HOUR 10: Drawing with the HTML5 Canvas Element 163 Using the Canvas Element.................................................................. 163 Drawing Shapes on the <Canvas> Element............................................ 165 Writing Fonts and Text on the Canvas.................................................. 177 Displaying Images ............................................................................ 179 How Is Canvas Different from SVG or Flash .......................................... 182 Summary ........................................................................................ 183 Q&A .............................................................................................. 184 Workshop ........................................................................................ 185

HOUR 11: Fonts and Typography in HTML5 187 Defining the Elements of Typography .................................................. 187 Using Proper Typographical Entities .................................................... 196 Understanding Web Open Font Format (WOFF)...................................... 198 Summary ........................................................................................ 202 Q&A .............................................................................................. 202 Workshop ........................................................................................ 203

HOUR 12: Audio and Video in HTML5 205 Why Use HTML5 for Audio and Video vs. Flash...................................... 205 Choosing Video Formats for the Best Compatibility ................................ 207 Choosing Audio Codecs for the Widest Support...................................... 208 The New HTML5 Media Elements ........................................................ 210 Useful Attributes to Extend Your Media ................................................ 212 Creating Fallback Options for Internet Explorer .................................... 216 Creating Custom Controls with API Methods ........................................ 217 Summary ........................................................................................ 219 Q&A .............................................................................................. 220 Workshop ........................................................................................ 220

HOUR 13: HTML5 Forms 223 New Usability Features in HTML5 Forms .............................................. 223 HTML5 Input Types .......................................................................... 228 Other New Form Elements.................................................................. 235

viii Sams Teach Yourself HTML5 Mobile Application Development in 24 Hours

Form Validation................................................................................ 237 Summary ........................................................................................ 241 Q&A .............................................................................................. 242 Workshop ........................................................................................ 242

HOUR 14: Editing Content and User Interaction with HTML5 245 The New contenteditable Attribute .................................................. 245 The execCommand Method .................................................................. 247 Adding Spellcheck to Web Pages.......................................................... 251 Hiding Elements .............................................................................. 252 Additional UI Components of HTML5 .................................................. 253 Browser Support of UI and Editing Features .......................................... 255 Summary ........................................................................................ 257 Q&A .............................................................................................. 258 Workshop ........................................................................................ 258

HOUR 15: Microformats and Microdata 261 Using Microformats .......................................................................... 261 Using Microdata .............................................................................. 267 Using RDFa...................................................................................... 269 Deciding Which Format to Use............................................................ 270 Mobile and Microformats .................................................................. 271 Summary ........................................................................................ 272 Q&A .............................................................................................. 273 Workshop ........................................................................................ 274

HOUR 16: Working with HTML5 Drag-and-Drop Functionality 275 Implementing Drag and Drop ............................................................ 275 Drag-and-Drop Events ...................................................................... 276 Drag-and-Drop Attributes .................................................................. 279 Helpful CSS Extensions ...................................................................... 280 Building a Drag-and-Drop Interface .................................................... 280 Using Drag and Drop on iOS .............................................................. 287

Contents ix

Summary ........................................................................................ 290 Q&A .............................................................................................. 290 Workshop ........................................................................................ 291

HOUR 17: HTML5 Links 293 How Links Have Changed in HTML5.................................................... 293 Link Types and Relationships.............................................................. 299 Using the New Link Types .................................................................. 300 Summary ........................................................................................ 306 Q&A .............................................................................................. 306 Workshop ........................................................................................ 307

Part III: HTML5 for Mobile and Web Applications

HOUR 18: Web Application APIs and Datasets 309 Creating Web Applications ................................................................ 309 Datasets and data-* Attributes .......................................................... 318 Summary ........................................................................................ 320 Q&A .............................................................................................. 320 Workshop ........................................................................................ 321

HOUR 19: WebSockets, Web Workers, and Files 323 Two-Way Communication with WebSockets .......................................... 323 Running Scripts in the Background with Web Workers ............................ 326 Handling Client-Side Files with the File API .......................................... 331 Summary ........................................................................................ 337 Q&A .............................................................................................. 338 Workshop ........................................................................................ 339

HOUR 20: Offline Web Applications 341 Building Offline Apps and Converting Apps to Work Offline.................... 341 The Cache Manifest .......................................................................... 343 Using DOM Events and Properties for Offline Apps ................................ 347 Debugging the Application Cache ...................................................... 351

x Sams Teach Yourself HTML5 Mobile Application Development in 24 Hours

Summary ........................................................................................ 352 Q&A .............................................................................................. 352 Workshop ........................................................................................ 353

HOUR 21: Web Storage in HTML5 355 What Is Web Storage?........................................................................ 356 Web SQL and Indexed DB .................................................................. 361 Summary ........................................................................................ 370 Q&A .............................................................................................. 371 Workshop ........................................................................................ 372

HOUR 22: Controlling the Browser History with the History API 373 Why Control the Browser History? ...................................................... 373 History API Methods.......................................................................... 375 Using the History API ........................................................................ 375 Dangers and Annoyances of the History API ........................................ 383 Summary ........................................................................................ 384 Q&A .............................................................................................. 385 Workshop ........................................................................................ 386

HOUR 23: Adding Location Detection with Geolocation 387 What Is Geolocation? ........................................................................ 387 Privacy and Geolocation .................................................................... 394 Creating a Mobile Geolocation Application .......................................... 396 Summary ........................................................................................ 401 Q&A .............................................................................................. 401 Workshop ........................................................................................ 402

HOUR 24: Converting HTML5 Apps to Native Apps 405 Comparing the Difference Between Native and HTML5 Apps .................. 405 Converting to Native Apps ................................................................ 408 Creating Application Icons ................................................................ 414 Testing Your Applications .................................................................. 416 Selling Your App in the App Stores ...................................................... 418

Contents xi

Options Other Than Converting to Native Apps .................................... 419 Summary ........................................................................................ 419 Q&A .............................................................................................. 420 Workshop ........................................................................................ 421

Part IV: Appendixes

APPENDIX A: Answers to Quizzes 423 Hour 1, “Improving Mobile Web Application Development with HTML5” .................................................................................. 423 Hour 2, “New HTML5 Tags and Attributes with Mobile Development” ...... 423 Hour 3, “Styling Mobile Pages with CSS3” ............................................ 424 Hour 4, “Detecting Mobile Devices and HTML5 Support” ........................ 424 Hour 5, “JavaScript and HTML5 Web Applications”................................ 425 Hour 6, “Building a Mobile Web Application” ...................................... 425 Hour 7, “Upgrading a Site to HTML5” .................................................. 426 Hour 8, “Converting Web Apps to Mobile”............................................ 426 Hour 9, “Adding Meaning with HTML5 Sectioning and Semantic Elements” .......................................................................... 427 Hour 10, “Drawing with the HTML5 Canvas Element” ............................ 427 Hour 11, “Fonts and Typography in HTML5” ........................................ 428 Hour 12, “Audio and Video in HTML5” ................................................ 428 Hour 13, “HTML5 Forms” .................................................................. 429 Hour 14, “Editing Content and User Interaction with HTML5”.................. 429 Hour 15, “Microformats and Microdata” .............................................. 430 Hour 16, “Working with HTML5 Drag-and-Drop Functionality”................ 430 Hour 17, “HTML5 Links”.................................................................... 430 Hour 18, “Web Application APIs and Datasets”...................................... 431 Hour 19, “WebSockets, Web Workers, and Files” .................................... 431 Hour 20, “Offline Web Applications”.................................................... 432 Hour 21, “Web Storage in HTML5” ...................................................... 432

xii Sams Teach Yourself HTML5 Mobile Application Development in 24 Hours

Hour 22, “Controlling the Browser History with the History API” .............. 433 Hour 23, “Adding Location Detection with Geolocation” ........................ 434 Hour 24, “Converting HTML5 Apps to Native Apps” .............................. 434

APPENDIX B: HTML Elements and Attributes 437 HTML5 Elements .............................................................................. 437 HTML5 Attributes.............................................................................. 442

APPENDIX C: HTML5 and Mobile Application Resources 447 Books.............................................................................................. 447 Websites .......................................................................................... 448 This Book’s Website .......................................................................... 448

ORIGIN OF THARUS

Tharus are one of the earliest inhabitants of Nepal. There are many controversies about the origin of Tharus. Scholars have not been able to come at definite & clear conclusion. Regarding the origin of Tharus there are many arguments, stories & claims made by different scholars.

 Some scholars have derived Tharu origin through etymologies & some tried to trace the origin through alleged. Historians tell that Tharus are originated from India.  Tharus migrated from Thar Desert of India to Nepal in 13 to 15 century. Tharus got name as Tharus since they migrated from Desert Thar. Another logic about Tharu origin is that while settling down in Terai , people started to make plain lands cutting trees , slopping hilltops & made it land suitable for cultivation & good settlement; in Nepali as people living in mountains i.e ‘pahad’ are called ‘pahadis’ , similarly as people started living in plain lands which is called ‘samathar’ in Nepali, people living in ‘samathar’ lands get called Tharus which seems influenced from word ‘Thar’.

Likewise some stories tell that Tharus are originated from Mongolians , kirati , Arya race . But these stories don’t hold true fact. Many writers & researchers have criticized this saying.

Nowadays many new facts are being discussed on topic of Tharu origin .Recent researchers in Nepal have started saying that Tharus are of Nepalese origin. They originated in Nepal around the Kapilvastu & are found all over Nepal. Many researchers have claimed that Tharus are the genera of Buddha.

Introduction of Dangaura Tharus

For the last one hundred years peoples around the world have been fascinated by Nepal because of its magnificent mountains, towering Himalayas closed off from the outside world by its potentates; this kingdom lived in secluded splendor until the 1950s when its door was officially opened to the outside world.

Nepal is a country famous for its mountains all over the world but in truth the majority of people live far away from the romantic idealic Nepal’s lap of snowcapped peaks. Beyond the foot tales of Himalayas lies the congestive plain called Terai. The isolation of the Tharu in the Terai was even more complete; living in villages located in malaria-infested jungles of the Gang etic plains & Tharus rarely encountered outsiders. Over the long period they developed a unique culture free from influence of adjacent India or free from the mountains group of Nepal .

Here the climate is hot & people are dark. Here people cultivate what is known as bread basket of Nepal. Among various people who farm these land, Tharus  are credited with being the oldest saplings who cultivated the Terai from the dense malaria infested jungle into prime farm land. The Tharu settlement expands across the southern belt of Nepal in Mid-western Nepal in Dang Valley live the Dangaura Tharu.  

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The need of English language

Nepal, the need of English languages as the second languages is realized. We know that the population is increasing very drastically, whereas production is decreasing on geometrical ratio. Moreover we lack job opportunities on the lack of industries. We are back in the field of science and technology. Because of these reasons we are forced to go to foreign countries for the purpose of finding jobs, for business, for higher education. At that time English language is needed.

It is needless to say that English has been recognized as an international language. Manu countries have made English language compulsory to adopt it as a second language. It is the only language to make it possible for stringer to indentify with each other and express their views on different topics. It has been the medium of exchanging thoughts and ideas with one another. The other reason of learning language is it’s simplicity, rich vocabulary and assimilating power. It has the capacity to assimilate the words of another language to make its own. Moreover all the standard books are written in English. Legal books, Medical books are written in English. English is the noblest body of literature. More than half of the world’s books are written in English.

Western civilization is the oldest one. When we study English languages we get acquitted with custom and their way of life. In leaning higher science, technology medicine, economics and commerce we must be English based. We can’t study these subjects in advanced stages in our mother tongue, English languages has helped as to develop our literature also. English literature is very flourishing. English is absolutely necessary to deal with international matters. It is the means of communication. English is at present our medium for communication. For our personal and national development we need to learn English language.

Poem: God

Oh god you are my lord.
You live in the heart of all
In the temple. In the church
In the mosque. In the monastery
You live in the water
You live in the air.
You live in the heaven.
And also live in light.
All of the people.
Worship to you
You give blessing people
Who worship to you

Time as a bank account of life

Imagine, there is a bank that credits your account each ‘morning’ with $ 86400. It carries over no balance from day to day. Each ‘evening’ deletes whatever part of balance you failed to use during the day. What would you do? Draw out every cent of course!!! Each of us has such a bank. It’s name is ‘time’. Every morning it credits you with 86400 seconds. Every night it writes off, as lost, whatever of this you have failed to invest to good purpose. It carries over no balance. It allows no overdraft. Each day it opens a new account for you. If you fail to use the day’s deposits the loss is yours. There is no going back. There is no drawing against the ‘tomorrow’ you must live in the present deposits. Invest it so as to get from it the utmost in health, happiness and success! The clock is running. Make the most of today.
To realize the value of one year, ask a student who failed a grade. To realize the value of one month, ask a mother who gave birth to a premature baby. To realize the value of one week ask the editor of weekly newspaper. To realize the value of one hour, ask the lovers who are waiting to mee. To realize the value of one minute, ask a person who missed a train. To realize the value of one second, ask the person who past avoided an accident. To realize the value of one millisecond, ask a person who won a silver medal in Marathoon/Olympics. Tressver every moment that you have. And tressure it more because you shared it with someone special, special enough to spend your time. And remember, time waits for no one.

Faith Produces Miracles

Abhishek was a young boy. He was a sincere devotee of Vinayaka. He beloved that any reasonable request of a devotee would be granted by God Vinayaka.
Right from his childhood he was interested more in machines and their working that in studies. His father felt sorry for his bad performance in the exams.
Whenever Abhishek came across a machine, he spent time to understand its working. His mother always a predated his enthusiasm. She believed that children should be encouraged in the subject of their choice. Whenever his father was away from him. Abhishek handled small machines like wall clock, table fan or Radio. He dismantled a machine part by part and reassembled. His mother enjoyed the fun though she was afraid of her husbands reaction.
One day Abhishek wanted to dismantle the refrigerator and reassemble it before his father returned home. He opened the refrigerator and separated the part one by one. Though he was initially successful to some extent, he was unable to reassemble the complete unit. He was worried but in few moments he remembered his clear God Ganesh. As he began praying in deep mediation, he went in to sleep. After sometime, like to flash in the sky. Lord Vinayaka appeared in his dream and suggested to open the lapboard and see. Abhishek could not understand what the meaning of the suggestion. However, he opened the lapboard. To his surprise he found a manual about the working of the refrigerator. Now he understand what Vinayaka wanted to suggest. With the help of the manual, Abhishek was able to reassemble the refrigerator working normally.
When father returned home his mother narrated the incident in detail. Abhishek’s father though over the subject. He realized that by giving on opportunity to Abhishek, he could make him an expert engineer. Feeling sorry for having misunderstood Abhishek so long, he approached Abhishek, hugged him and said softly, “My dear son, I realized my mistake. I will se that you are admitted in an engineering college. I am sure that I can see you as an outstanding engineer.”
Tears rolled down the yeas of all of than. Abhishek enjoyed a rare sense of joy for the first fill in his life.

Inner insights

Its not the way I should have started, I know it clearly but there is no way out. This may or may not be new to u but at this point of life it happens. There is scientific reason behind such event. I am not the student of science but I compare my life’s usual and unusual event with science and try to find out scientific reason regarding happening of such event. It might have been quiet confusing to you to understand but don’t get worried at end of this essay you will definitely understand the fact. Why? Because you deserve it!

We get born in this earth once and for all. I mean we don’t know life after death. But I believe reincarnation and I can even prove it scientifically. Human never get life same as this but during journey of birth to death. They see their own birth. Let me explain it clearly, human get married and genetically give birth to child having same characteristics as they possess. I believe this is reincarnation. It is very hard to understand. Livings being appeared in this earth are struggling to make their legacy of gene up to infinite.

Charles Robert Darwin proved that living being struggle to survive in this earth not because to sustain their own life but for their offspring.... One line is drawn since life started to survive in this earth.  For example, If monkeys of different species were unsuccessful to sustain life in this earth their would have been no existence of human so far. We know the fact that life started from the water as unicellular developing into multicellular. During his trip to Galapagos Darwin studied that French bird (a type of bird) were nestling in the little island. Darwin observed these birds in different season for long years. He some how managed to take data’s like length of beak, weight and foods it depend on. Generally this bird depended on fruits and grain sized foods produced in small bushes. These bushes were adequately found and were totally depended on rain water to grow. Few years later, island was converting into desert consequently after no rain. Birds which depend upon tiny bushes started dying. Darwin found that alive birds started to feed on nectar of cactus and some started to feed on insects. Year after year Darwin observed that bird feeding on bushes were completely disappeared and he found that birds that started feeding on nectar had an long beak  and bird which feed on insect had a small beak both beak measuring completely different form the previous one. Developing one species into two new species it proved that living being adaptable only exists in this earth. It also reflects that animals grant all of their characteristics in their offspring which completely help them to survive in this earth.

Main reason behind writing this essay is not to explain you boring theories which I believe are the fact. But my main motive behind writing this essay is to explain my scientific cause to be in love with you and proposing you. Again I know at this point I will never get success because it’s too late and sometime I curse myself realizing the fact that I never got chance to be close at any period of my life with you. Knowing such fact why I chose this path have scientific meanings. Listen love is never preplanned. As you know I have never talked with you and even don’t know your name. And the question is what enforced me? First of all think why I chose you after all there are a lot of beautiful girls I meet daily but why you? It is very simple to understand. I believe human body is a powerful scanner that receives signals of life. When viruses are new they outbreak as deadly epidemic killings life on earth but after the death of the life in which it live as parasite it eventually losses its own life so at last it mutate in such a way that they don’t kill life until they reproduce because it wants to keep its identity other wise there is no meaning of life as virus. This is universal reason which is in fact happens in every living beings. When any animal get birth in this earth it works hard to survive not only for its own life but for its orphans too and it continues on and on. Animal get birth, grow, mate to reproduce and care their babies for one universal reason not letting their line of life (existence) to get end. Humans are also inseparable. There are many facts which I have studied if I start to explain them certainly I think I am capable to write book but at this moment I think my motive is not to write book but to say why I chose you. Human body are scanner which scan better person which it realizes the best.- so that his offspring remain healthy and survives well in earth. It receives signals that make all these things clear when it is received by opposite sex as well than I believe there is reason or hope for love and life and vice versa. I have also scientific reason regarding my own life. Let me explain that.

It doesn’t matter if I am not selected. I mean because at this point of live I can fully understand that you are already been selected with someone. Your heart and soul find it well. Someone you have selected is best for your soul to reincarnate I am not saying these word but it’s a universal truth………………...but from side I assure you that in my life span I will also be selected with someone else. I know this fact and question is knowing such fact why I m proposing then? Because I think what we learn or experience in our life it occurs as characteristics of our offspring’s if I don’t do so than my offspring will never have this bold characteristics and they remain unselected for long period because they remain undeveloped with this characteristics, if this continues from gene to gene than my line of survival will slowly vanish. You might be thinking if I think so why didn’t I propose any other girls because my motive is to develop characteristics in offspring but not to be selected? My answer is, my body has only received signals life from you. If I will propose with this reason than my offspring will able to recognize signals of better person and remain healthy and strong.

I might have bored you but truth is I am not a scientist but I want to make clear about  view of along with this  life I have many thoughts which reside deep inside me but I am hoping to out break it one day.

So far I m concerned, I am telling you this because just his way I don’t want end up I mean I have one life and I have nothing to prove so whatever miss in this span, I will never get it back.  And lastly I promise u I will never continue it again or bother u again this is once and for all. Just letting you know that someone felt in love with u and you are so great for him. Who always wants to keep a eye on you caring and missing a moment of life time.

I have always found my life in miseries and in worse fate so that sometime I call my self millionaire of worse fate. This is also another worse fate that I never met you before and I saw at this point of life where I know I have no option than cursing my life but you don’t get upset with this essay but work hard, prepare for the exam and prove that you’re the best of best. I hope I will meet you in next life but I don’t guarantee.

The real meaning of Generic tern 'Tharu'

Again, the question arises – what is the real meaning of the generic term  Tharu? Why and since when did the Sakyas introduce themselves as Tharu?

                Once, Newfield (1885:1) Suggested 'It is safer to consider the name derived from the dialect of the tribe itself rather than search for it in Hindu etymology because and aboriginal name which is not derived from any Sanskrit or un-Brahminized tribe whose customes have been only slightly modified by contact with those Aryan invader.'

                DB Bista and Babooram Acharya also had supported his concept and believing this ideology Jagman Gurung tries to find out the generic tern in Tebito-Burmese language. He believes that the original form is 'Tharwa'. Dr. Rameshraj Kunwar (1998:4) informs us, 'they use two terms while giving their identity to insiders and outsiders which is used here by autonomy i.e. 'Tharwa' and exonym i.e. 'Tharu'. This information is true but incomplete. The western Tharu use 'Tharwa' but the Kochila Tharu use 'Thaur'.

Gurung (BS 2038:54) finds that the Tharwa term in Tibetan dictionary, which means 'to get through' and is very alike to Sanskrit meaning. Hence, we should not forget this historical fact that the Tibetan language was intergrated and propagated for the first time during the regime of Srong Tsan Gampo, whti great assistance from Indian Buddhist Monks.' (Sankrityayan 1985:6).

The Tharus are an admixture race

The case of Tharu sems to present both similarities and contrasts with the Newar case. We see in the Newar case that until a few centuries ago, they did not use to indentify themselves as Newars. We find that the first time the term was used during Nepal Sambat 774, about 500 years ago. Although they identify verbally and in writing as a single group, now only a few individuals used to use the term Newar as a surname. If we ask who are the proper Newars, then it would include all the Gopalvamsi, Mahishpal vamsi, the Licchavis, the Sakyas, the Koliyas, the Jyapus, the Karnatak vamsi, the Mallas the Deo and Jha Brahmins and the others who poured into the Kathmandu valley and called Nepa: and created and developed their own kind of unique culture, society, language and state before the Gorkha conquest. The anthropologiest have traced that the Newars are a blood-mixed race of the Caucasian of the south and the Mongoloid of the north. Mortan class argues that a few groups of Newars contain Dravidian blood too.

Similarly, although it is supposed that the Tharu originally belonged to the Mongoloid14 stock, but are found different physical traits among them. Alberuni noted the dark complexion and flat nose similar to the Turks. Similarly, Martin (1838 II: 342) points 'There remain in their features strong marks of Chinese or Tartar origin, although, it must be confessed that these marks are somewhat softened and that faces of the man especially do not differ so much from those of Hindus as those of a Chinese." In contrast, Risley felt that the Tharus belonged to the Dravidian or Kolarian aborigional races but his conclusion was largely based on the peculiar dialcect the Tharu spoke. 15. Krauskopff (1995:202) also suspects that they are perhaps Mongoloid mixed with Plans people Dravidian or Kolarian mixed whti Mongoloids of Nepal.

                The Tharus are on average of below medium height with a round head tending towards a broader shape. They have a short nose and a round or oval face (mahalanobis, 1949). In the ABO blood group, they show a higher incidence of gene B (28-37%) than gene A with 40 to 50% of gene O. A relatively higher gene M (70-75%) in the MN system, has been observed among them. They show a very low frequency of secretors (42%) for ABH secretion in saliva and non-taster individuals (18%) for PTC taste abiligy. In the Rh distribution they show a high incidence of R1 (70%), R0 (8%) and low frequency of R2 (11%) with the presence of Rz. In finger dermatoglyphic features, they exhibit a higher incidence of whorls and a low percentages of arches and a high value of pattern intensity index (K.S. Sing 1994:1138). But the above dates are collected from only the western Tharus. Krauskopff (1995:201-2) says several anthropometric and genetic studies addressing the mysterious racial mixture of the Tharu have been systematically carried out to settle this question on a 'scientific basis' but without success.

A passage to origin: Between myth and history

There are several kinds of legends of the origin of Tharu, and a few are very popular among the Tharu and have been scripted by scholars in their works. Here are some of the legends are in brief.

                'Guru Baba Ke Jalamauti' is one of the famous legends which is concerned with Dangora Tharu and Tharu cosmology. However, I have also heard the same type of fiction in my childhood but in a little alterated form in the occasion of 'Jitiya Pabain'. Jitiya Pabain  festival is one of the major and compulsory festival of Kochila Tharu. In this occasion, this story is recited by Mithila Brahmin.

                According of 'Gurubaba ke Jalmauti', Dr. Jajaure (1982: 61) writes, before the creaton of this world the earth was burning hot. There was only fire and smoke everwhere but not a singlie 'strand' of life. After sometime, water took the place of fire and there was water everwhere. The almighty god flew all over in the form of a bird to see whether there was any trace of land to start the creation of the world. As no wuch land existed anywhere on the water, he sowed a lotus seed and when the lefves ofa lotus plant came out above the water, the almighty god gave birth go Gurubaba (The first Tharu god on earth) in the form of a kwara squash (bemicasa hispida) that is to say, whthout limbs or sense organs. The almighty god took pity on the creature he has made and gave limbs and all necessary organs one after another to Gurubaba. Gurubaba after he had because like a complete man, ordered an earthworm, maned dudhia, is bring some ammarmati (divine earth) from the patal (The world underneath) to start the worldly creation. The dudhia, after having been thoroughly search by the watchmen guarding the ammarmati in patal, was somehow able to smuggtle our a little bit of the earth by hiding it in his mouth. This ammarmati was scattered on the water, in the same way as s bit of curd is put into mild to curdle it. After that the water turned into earth and Gurubaba then brought all earthly things into existence. Later on, when Gurubaba felt lonely, he created the goddess Maiya, who became his wife. All men and women of this earth today are the descendants of Gurubaba and Maiya.

Gaurisanker Dwivedi (1955:21) quotes that the Encyclopedia  Britannica has also mentioned the Tharus. Encyclopedia explains a legend that Raja Vena got a son maned Riksheswar or Raksha. The Raja expelled his son Raksha and his company to a remote Jungle and forbade them to come back to his kingdom. According to the royal order they were compelled to exile in the North Jungle and on the way, they looted to people and captured many women. The children he got from these women are the forefather? The present Tharu. The Raksha and his company saved the Tharu in Jungle. Therefore, the Tharu believe that in the battlefield, in the Jungle and on a journey the Riksheswar saves them. Risley also describes ahe religion of Tharu as s compounded of amimism and nature worship and of some elements borrowed from popular Hinduism. He mentions Riksheswar as being the principal deity worshiped by them. (Iyer and Ratnam, 1961:2^nd:184).

                Kurt Meyer (1995:95) quotes that Buchnan has refuted in his book 'Eastern India' that the Tharus claim by thanks that they are descendants of Pajputs2 who were evicted from Thar desert or Rajputana Rajsthan by Moslem invaders. Further Meyer writes that Buchnan states that no Moslem historian has made the slightest allusion to the Tharus in connectin whti these events. The fiction of having migrated from Rajputana into the Terai, therefore, most have been invented by some of the clans to raise themselves in their own, and their neighbors estimation. I should emphasize here that I agree whti the first account by Buchanan. Perhaps, not all the groups of the Tharus are direct descendants of the Rajputs who fled from Rajputanana during the attack of Allaudin Khilji, as there are records of the existence of Tharu before the 12^th century. A Moslem historian Alberuni (1030 AD) in his book Tahkik-i-Hind' mentioned that the tharu people lived in Tilwat (Tirhut or Mithila). Before him a lana guru, Padmasambhava (755AD) recorded that he had visited the tharu people in his travel account (Ramponche 1986:52)  even then, the tern Rana3 can not be totally ignored. I think there must be some reality behind their claim. Similarly , W. Crooke (1986) has written what the Tharus trace their origin to their forefather who fled from the great battle described in the epic Mahabharat. They derive their name from Thirthurana, meaning the quake4.

                According to Dr. Bajrakishor Brama5 the Tharus are the residue of the attacking white Hunas who were a band of nomad savages who lived in the neighborhood of China. The Hunas attacked India in the period of Skanda Gupta's regime but they were beaten back from Balkh (Afghanistan). Later on, two kings of Hunas; Toramana and Mihirkula ruled over in western India. Punjab and Kasmir India between 480 to 567 Ad. Raj Tarangini (The chronology of Kasmir) refers to Mihirkula as a powerful king who ruled over Gandhar and Kasmir and conquered Southern India and Ceylon. Hiuen Tsang also noted the defeat of Mihirkula bu the Gupta emperor. He was described as a man of violent desposition and a big enemy of Buddhism. He was a big adversary of Moukhary vamsh. However, the Tarus actually belonged to North Eastern Terai and were supporters of Buddhism6 and I think a lineage, the Mukhariya sub group of Kochila Tharu is from the Moukhary Kula⁷. Therefore, the origin of Tharu can not bhe connected to the white Hunas.

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